ENGL 101 Composition Practice 5 Reading Critically and Logic Assignment solutions complete answers

ENGL 101 Composition Practice 5 Reading Critically and Logic Assignment solutions complete answers

 

My neighbor had their children vaccinated. Their youngest now has autism. The vaccines caused the autism.

 

It’s okay to not give up your bus seat to a pregnant person. Everyone knows that chivalry is dead.

 

1 . Reading Actively

In order to understand a text fully, you must read actively, meaning you must stop and think as you are reading, not just passively absorb the words. The following actions will improve your understanding as you read:

Preview
Take an overview of the text, including titles, headings, and the beginning and ending of the piece.
Predict
Based on your preview, make an educated guess as to the topic and purpose of the text.
Connect
Consider what you already know or believe about the topic.
Question
Turn any headings or key words into questions you want to get answered.
Annotate
Highlight key points and make notes in the margins that reinforce the important ideas. Note questions or responses you have.
Look up definitions
If you can’t figure out the meaning of unfamiliar words from the context, and if they are important to the text, look them up and write down a simple definition or synonym.
Analyze visuals
Take a close look at any pictures, charts, or other graphics provided—read them fully to see what information they are adding to the text.
Write
Respond to the text by writing a brief summary and/or your response to the text to confirm your understanding.
 

In order to read actively, you need to be familiar with the steps described above. Without looking back at the chart, use the words in the box below to complete the following sentences that describe what you will do when reading a non-fiction text:

List of words: preview, predict, connect, question, annotate, look up definitions, analyze visuals, write.

To make sure that nothing gets in the way of my understanding, I will       of any words that I don’t know.

 

To help me keep track of important ideas as I go and any questions or thoughts I have, I will       the text by highlighting and writing notes in the margins.

 

To be familiar with the text before I read it closely, I will       it by looking over any titles, headings, visuals, and the beginning and end.

 

Based on my preview, I will       what the text is about or the author’s purpose, and then read the text fully to see if my guesses were correct.

 

After completing the reading, I will        a brief summary or response to confirm my understanding of the text.

 

Aside from reading the text, I will        provided to see what information or meaning they add.

 

I will        my prior knowledge or experience with this topic as I begin to read the text.

 

I will use the headings to help me        what will be explained in the text, and look for the answers as I go.

 

2 . Reading Critically

Reading actively and reading as a doubter and as a believer all help you achieve the task of reading critically, that is, not only understanding the text but also evaluating it. Ultimately, to analyze a text in this deep way, you want to:

Assess the author.
What do you know about him or her? What role is he or she speaking from? Is he or she trustworthy on this topic?
 
Who is publishing this text? Is this a trustworthy source on this topic?
Determine the intended audience.
If you know the target audience for the text—or if you can infer that based on the message, the setting, and the language—you will be able to understand more about the message itself.
Determine the author’s purpose.
What does the author want to achieve with this message? The general purpose of a text is usually to persuade, inform, and/or entertain. Go beyond that to figure out the author’s specific purpose.
Recognize assumptions.
Consider any assumption (or premise) the author is relying on in his or her argument. Do you agree with the underlying assumptions?
Identify bias.
Consider the author’s role, background, or beliefs; these factors might affect his or her purpose and opinions.
Make inferences.
Go beyond what is explicitly (plainly) stated by the author to draw conclusions about what the text suggests.
Determine the tone.
Similar to tone of voice, the tone of a text conveys the author’s attitude and emotion about the topic.
Distinguish between fact and opinion.
What is information that can be proven? What is the author’s belief or judgment? Recognizing the difference is important to your understanding of the text.
Read the following text using your active and critical reading skills. Then read the questions below and select the best response for each one.

 

Chapter 2: Rabble in Arms

At the start of the siege there had been no American army. Even now it had no flag or uniforms. Though in some official documents it had been referred to as the Continental Army, there was no clear agreement on what it should be called in actual practice. At first it was referred to as the New England army, or the army at Boston. The continental Congress had appointed George Washington to lead "the army of the United Colonies," but in correspondence with the general, the President of Congress, John Hancock, referred to it only as "the troops under your command." Washington, in his formal orders, called them the "Troops of the United Provinces of North America." Privately he described them as the "raw materials" for an army.

To the British and those Loyalists who had taken refuge in Boston, they were simply "the rebels," or "the country people," undeserving the words "American" or "army." General John Burgoyne disdainfully dubbed them "a preposterous parade," a "rabble in arms."

In April, when the call for help first went out after Lexington and Concord, militia and volunteer troops from the other New England colonies had come by the thousands to join forces with the Massachusetts regiments – 1,500 Rhode Islanders led by Nathanael Greene, 5,000 from Connecticut under the command of Israel Putnam. John Stark's New Hampshire regiment of 1,000 had marched in snow and rain, "wet and sloppy," "through mud and mire," without food or tents, seventy-five miles in three and a half days. The Massachusetts regiments, by far the strongest of the provincial troops, possibly numbered more than 10,000.

Source: McCullough, David. 1776. Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, 2006, pp. 24-25.

 

Based on the text, what can you conclude about the author?

The author’s use of inflammatory language describing the British in paragraph 2 suggests he is biased towards the colonists’ point of view.

The author must have a direct connection to the men and women living in New England during this time.

Because no information is provided about the author and because the information seems to be presented objectively, we can conclude that the author wants to present a balanced view of this time in American history.

 

Who do you think is the primary audience for this text?

Based on the tone of the text and the vocabulary, the target audience is likely to be middle school students.

Based on the fact that the source is a book, the tone is objective, and some of the vocabulary is very precise, the target audience is likely to be an educated person interested in American history.

Based on the tone of the text and the vocabulary, the target audience is likely to be non-Americans interested in learning about American history.

 

What is the author trying to achieve with this text?

The author’s purpose is to explain how Massachusetts came to lead the colonies in the revolution.

The author’s purpose is to show how the British government underestimated the strength of the “American Army” at the start of the revolution.

The author’s purpose is to explain how the “American Army” was formed as a result of the events in New England leading up to the beginning of the war.

 

What is the best text evidence to support the inference that the colonists’ troops were willing to sacrifice and suffer for their cause?

 “Volunteer troops from the other New England colonies had come by the thousands.”

 “John Stark’s New Hampshire regiment . . . had marched in snow and rain, ‘wet and sloppy,’ ‘through mud and mire,’ without food or tents.”

 “The Massachusetts regiments. . . possibly numbered more than 10,000.”

 

How would you describe the tone of this text?

The tone of this text is angry and combative.

The tone of this text is melodramatic and emotional.

The tone of this text is straightforward and factual.

 

Which paragraph, if any, presents mainly the author’s opinion of the formation of the American troops?

None of the paragraphs present mainly opinion.

Paragraph 3 is mainly author opinion.

Paragraph 1 is mainly author opinion.

 

David Eagleman is a neuroscientist and bestselling author. He is a Guggenheim Fellow, a council member on the World Economic Forum, and a professor at Baylor University.

In earlier times in our evolution, there was no real way to interact with others at a distance any farther than that allowed by hands, feet, or possibly a stick. That distance of interaction was salient and consequential, and this is what our emotional reaction reflects. In modern times, the situation differs: generals and even soldiers commonly find themselves far removed from the people they kill. In Shakespeare's Henry VI, Part 2, the rebel Jack Cade challenges Lord Say, mocking the fact that he has never known the firsthand danger of the battlefield: 'When struck'st thou one blow in the field?' Lord Say responds, 'Great men have reaching hands: oft have I struck those that I never saw, and struck them dead.' In modern times, we can launch forty Tomahawk surface-to-surface missiles from the deck of navy ships in the Persian Gulf and Red Sea with the touch of a button. The result of pushing that button may be watched by the missile operators live on CNN, minutes later, when Baghdad's buildings disappear in plumes. The proximity is lost, and so is the emotional influence. This impersonal nature of waging war makes it disconcertingly easy. In the 1960s, one political thinker suggested that the button to launch a nuclear war should be implanted in the chest of the President's closest friend. That way, should the President want to make the decision to annihilate millions of people on the other side of the globe, he would first have to physically harm his friend, ripping open his chest to get to the button. That would at least engage his emotional system in the decision making, so as to guard against letting the choice be impersonal.

Because both of the neural systems battle to control the single output channel of behavior, emotions can tip the balance of decision making. This ancient battle has turned into a directive of sorts for many people: if it feels bad, it is probably wrong. There are many counter examples to this (for example, one may find oneself put off by another's sexual preference but still deem nothing morally wrong with that choice), but emotion nonetheless serves as a generally useful steering mechanism for decision making.

 

The author believes that we have benefitted from the modern technology that allows us to interact with people at a distance.

The author is speaking about emotional decision making more from his own personal experience than his professional expertise.

The author’s professional experience and expertise have led him to form the ideas and opinions presented in this book.

 

Based on the fact that the source is a book and the topic is presented scientifically, with precise vocabulary, the target audience is likely to be an educated person interested in how the brain works.

Based on the tone of the text and the vocabulary, the target audience is likely to be governmental leaders developing decision-making protocols.

 

The author’s purpose is to explain that if something makes you feel badly, you need to make a different decision.

The author’s purpose is to show that important decisions should not be made by people who are alone or detached from others.

The author’s purpose is to explain one way that personal connection and emotion affect how we make decisions.

 

What is the best text evidence to support the inference that a result of modern technology is that we can do things that have a direct, specific effect on people thousands of miles away from us?

 “We can launch 40 surface-to-surface Tomahawk missiles from the deck of navy ships . . . with the touch of a button.”

 “This impersonal nature of waging war makes it disconcertingly easy.”

 “That would at least engage his emotional system in the decision making.”

 

Which of the following statements expresses the author’s opinion?

 

Judy Brady, feminist and writer, examines both the demands of the stereotypical husband and the compliance of the stereotypical wife in her iconic essay, "I Want a Wife." This essay first appeared in Ms magazine in 1971.

I belong to that classification of people known as wives. I am A Wife. And, not altogether incidentally, I am a mother.

Not too long ago a male friend of mine appeared on the scene fresh from a recent divorce. He had one child, who is, of course, with his ex-wife. He is looking for another wife. As I thought about him while I was ironing one evening, it suddenly occurred to me that I, too, would like to have a wife. Why do I want a wife?

I would like to go back to school so that I can become economically independent, support myself, and, if need be, support those dependent upon me. I want a wife who will work and send me to school. And while I am going to school, I want a wife to take care of my children. I want a wife to keep track of the children's doctor and dentist appointments. And to keep track of mine, too. . . .

I want a wife who will take care of my physical needs. I want a wife who will keep my house clean. A wife who will pick up after my children, a wife who will pick up after me. I want a wife who will keep my clothes clean, ironed, mended, replaced when need be, and who will see to it that my personal things are kept in their proper place so that I can find what I need the minute I need it. I want a wife who cooks the meals, a wife who is a good cook. I want a wife who will plan the menus, do the necessary grocery shopping, prepare the meals, serve them pleasantly, and then do the cleaning up while I do my studying. . . .

I want a wife who will not bother me with rambling complaints about a wife's duties. But I want a wife who will listen to me when I feel the need to explain a rather difficult point I have come across in my course studies. . . .

My God, who wouldn't want a wife?

 

Based on the text and any background information provided, what can you conclude about the author?

The author believes that women do not need men in their lives, just other women.

The author resents her husband and children and possibly wants to leave them.

The author brings her sensibilities as a feminist thinker to her role as a wife and mother.

 

The target audience is likely working women who feel guilty about not staying at home.

Based on the source of the text, a magazine for modern, progressive women (of the time), the target audience is probably other women who may be struggling with their role as wife and mother.

The target audience is likely to be men who insist their wives stay at home.

 

The author’s purpose is to persuade other women to stand up for their rights and to go out into the workforce if they want to.

The author’s purpose is to show all of the ways that many American wives (at the time of this article) actively supported their husbands and their households.

The author’s purpose is to persuade men and women to support equal rights for women in America.

 

Which is the best text evidence to support the inference that Judy Brady might have supported her husband in his education?

 “I want a wife who will listen to me when I feel the need to explain a rather difficult point I have come across in my studies.”

 “I, too, would like to have a wife.”

 “I want a wife who will work and send me to school. And while I am going to school, I want a wife to take care of my children.”

 

What underlying assumption by the author helps to make this article effective?

The assumption that many married women are unhappy with their situations

The assumption that many married women want to go back to school themselves

The assumption that many women will recognize themselves in the role she is describing

 

3 . Reading as a Doubter and as a Believer

An important part of critical reading of an argumentative text—that is, one that is presenting anything beyond straightforward facts—is to evaluate the information being presented, not simply accept it all at face value. You do not want to be overly skeptical or critical, nor do you want to be instantly receptive to all new ideas. The key is balancing the two sides; as writing professor Peter Elbow explains, read as a doubter and as a believer. Here’s how:

Reading as a Doubter
•
Look for weak support, error, or information omitted.
 
•
Consider your own prior knowledge or experience that might dispute what is being presented.
 
•
Consider any bias the writer may have.
Reading as a Believer
•
Embrace the writer’s point of view; acknowledge his or her experience.
 
•
Consider your prior knowledge or experience that might support what is being presented.
 
•
Consider your own biases or assumptions that might be affecting your response to the text.
Read the following text, an excerpt from President Obama’s second Inaugural Address, which he delivered on January 21, 2013. As you read, use the strategies above to read as a doubter and as a believer.

Excerpted from “Inaugural Address by President Barack Obama”

This generation of Americans has been tested by crises that steeled our resolve and proved our resilience. A decade of war is now ending. (Applause.) An economic recovery has begun. (Applause.) America’s possibilities are limitless, for we possess all the qualities that this world without boundaries demands: youth and drive; diversity and openness; an endless capacity for risk and a gift for reinvention. My fellow Americans, we are made for this moment, and we will seize it—so long as we seize it together. (Applause.)

For we, the people, understand that our country cannot succeed when a shrinking few do very well and a growing many barely make it. (Applause.) We believe that America’s prosperity must rest upon the broad shoulders of a rising middle class. We know that America thrives when every person can find independence and pride in their work; when the wages of honest labor liberate families from the brink of hardship. We are true to our creed when a little girl born into the bleakest poverty knows that she has the same chance to succeed as anybody else, because she is an American; she is free, and she is equal, not just in the eyes of God but also in our own. (Applause.)

Source: Obama, Barack. “Inaugural Address by President Barack Obama.” Whitehouse.gov, 21 Jan. 2013, www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2013/01/21/inaugural-address-president-barack-obama.

Now read the statements below and, using the dropdown menu, indicate whether the statement reflects your critical reading perspective as a believer or as a doubter.

As a   , I would consider the phrase “This generation of Americans has been tested by crises that steeled our resolve,” and I would try to think of examples for which that is true, like our response to 9/11.

As a   , I would consider the statement “An economic recovery has now begun,” and I would question if that is true and look for examples that disprove the statement from my own life or others.

As a   , I would consider the statement “a little girl born into the bleakest poverty knows she has the same chance to succeed as anybody else,” and I might determine that to be an unsupported statement.

As a   , I would acknowledge that President Obama has knowledge about the country’s economic situation.

 

As a    , I would consider the phrase “An economic recovery has begun,” and I would try to think of examples or data that support it.

As a    , I would consider the statement “America’s possibilities are limitless” with a bit of skepticism, and consider experience or knowledge I have that does not support that statement.

As a    , I would consider that the President’s perspective as the country’s leader might bias him about the state of the country and influence the tone he uses.

As a    , I would recognize that the President wants to send a positive message to his people.

 

As a    , I would consider the phrase “A decade of war is now ending,” and I would consider what knowledge and experience I have to support that statement.

As a    , I would consider the statement “A decade of war is now ending,” and I would question if that is true and consider if anything I know disproves that statement.

As a    , I would consider the statement “America’s possibilities are limitless,” and I might determine that the President wants us to believe that rather than it being a fact.

As a    , I would give credibility to the President’s role as the leader of the people of the United States.

 

4 . Identifying Logical Fallacies

By identifying logical fallacies, you can criticize someone else’s bad argument or prevent making one of your own. It is also important to know the difference between a fact and a logical fallacy. This problem will ask you to differentiate factual statements from logical fallacies.

The following is a partial list of common fallacies. Review them before answering the questions below.

•
Hasty generalization: Forming conclusions based on insufficient evidence
•
Appeal to Ignorance: Arguing that if no evidence is presented to prove a conclusion wrong, it must be right
•
Circular Argument: Arguing the same premise over and over without presenting new evidence
•
Red herring: Intentionally misleading a reader or audience
•
Ad hominem: Attacking the opponent rather than the idea he or she is discussing
•
Appeal to authority: Endorsing an argument based upon the person making it
•
Slippery Slope: Arguing that because one event occurs, another will occur because of it
•
False Dilemma: Oversimplifying an argument by claiming that only two extreme options exist
•
Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc: Assumes that because one event has occurred, the first event must have caused the second
•
Bandwagon appeal: Arguing that an idea should be accepted because it is popular
•
Personal Incredulity: Arguing that because a claim is too complicated to understand, it cannot be valid
 

Identify whether each statement is or is not a logical fallacy. Then select the statement that indicates why.

My neighbor had her children vaccinated. Her youngest now has autism. The vaccines caused the autism.

This   a logical fallacy because:

It isn’t making an argument; it presents a fact about the mother and child.

It uses faulty reasoning to draw a conclusion about the child’s diagnosis.

It accuses the mother of being a bad parent.

 

As a teenager, Mr. Lucas smoked cigarettes. There is no way he should be hired as a health teacher.

It isn’t making an argument; it presents a fact about health teachers.

It makes an unfair comparison between Mr. Lucas and a health teacher.

It attacks Mr. Lucas instead of addressing his qualifications to be a health teacher.

 

It’s okay to not give up your bus seat to a pregnant woman. Everyone knows that chivalry is dead.

It makes an unfair comparison between a pregnant woman and other bus passengers.

It tries to justify keeping a bus seat from a pregnant woman by claiming everyone has given up on chivalry.

It isn’t making an argument; it presents a fact about the absence of chivalry.

 

The evolutionary biologists Daniel E. Lieberman and Dennis M. Bramble have suggested that our ancestors survived by becoming endurance athletes.

It appeals to readers’ emotional reactions.

It is a fact.

It tries to convince readers that there are only two sides to an issue.

 

My neighbor’s son plays violent video games. He just was just disciplined for fighting on school property. The video games must have prompted this behavior.

It uses faulty reasoning to draw a conclusion about the boy’s behavior.

It isn’t making an argument; it presents a fact about the neighbor's son.

It attacks the makers of video games instead of focusing on the boy’s behavior.

 

Twenty years ago, Senator Jones committed adultery. How could we possibly vote for his tax reform proposal?

It makes an unfair comparison between Jones and a person who committed adultery.

It attacks Jones instead of addressing his tax reform proposal.

It isn’t making an argument; it presents a fact about adultery.

 

Everyone has huge credit card debt. You shouldn’t worry about it.

It tries to justify having huge credit card debt by claiming that everyone has it.

It isn’t making an argument; it presents a fact about credit card debt.

It makes an unfair comparison between the reader and people with credit card debt.

 

The Air Canada Pilots Association is calling for new regulations to limit the number of on-duty hours for pilots.

It selects the opposition’s weakest argument about Air Canada pilots to divert readers’ attention from the real issues.

It tries to validate a point by suggesting everyone else believes in this.

It presents a factual statement.

 

My uncle suffered from debilitating neck pain for years. He finally visited an acupuncturist. He no longer has any neck pain.

It uses faulty reasoning to draw a conclusion about the uncle’s pain relief.

It exposes acupuncturists as being cheats and liars.

It isn’t making an argument; it presents a fact about the uncle and his neck pain.

 

Ginger has moved to four apartments in five years. Clearly, she is too unsteady to be a senior manager.

It attacks Ginger instead of addressing her qualifications to be a senior manager.

It makes an unfair comparison between Ginger and a senior manager.

It isn’t making an argument; it presents a fact about Ginger.

 

I’m going to cheat on my homework. All of my classmates are doing it, so there is no reason for me to do mine the proper way.

It makes an unfair comparison between homework and class work.

It isn’t making an argument; it presents a fact about homework.

It takes advantage of a common view to persuade the reader to believe that it is okay to cheat on homework.

 

Ralph Steinman won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for 2011 for his “personalized” approach to treating cancer.

It provides factual evidence.

It makes an ad hominem attack against Steinman’s character.

It selects the opposition’s weakest argumentative point: Steinman’s approach to treating cancer.

 

5 . Understanding Logical Fallacies
Good logic often sounds good—that is, it often seems to make sense. Unfortunately, bad logic often sounds good as well. In order to distinguish good logic from bad logic, it is important to become familiar with logical fallacies, which are invalid arguments. To learn more about some of the most common logical fallacies, read the information that follows.

Common Types of Fallacies

Ad Hominem

Ad hominem (Latin for to the person): Attacking the opponent rather than the idea he or she is discussing

Example: My father told me I should quit smoking. But he’s been smoking since he was a teenager; why should I listen to him?

 

Directions: Read and answer the following question.

What is a logical fallacy?

A logical fallacy is a strategy used to divert a reader’s attention away from one topic and onto another.

A logical fallacy is an invalid argument.

A logical fallacy is the strongest, most sensible argument a writer can make in an essay.

 

Directions: Use the dropdown menus to indicate the types of logical fallacies that are present in the following table.

Example of Faulty Logic
Type of Fallacy
If government officials are arrested for leaking top-secret information, it is only a matter of time before our country starts imprisoning private citizens for speaking their minds on any subject.
 
My sister says that our society should do more to protect animals, but what does she know? She’s only in fourth grade!
 
A robber broke in to my house while my family was not at home and stole our new television, two computers, and some jewelry. This happened the day after I bought my daughter that pet hamster she’s been begging for. Obviously, buying the hamster must have somehow caused the robbery!
 
There’s no way that the California condor is endangered. I saw one last weekend!
 
A recent poll revealed that nearly half of the general population believes in ghosts. Thus, it stands to reason that you should believe in these mysterious specters, too.
 
Either we stop using paper or we will be a country barren of trees.
 
 

Post hoc, ergo propter hoc (Latin for after this, therefore because of this): Assuming an event is caused by something that happened before it

Example: Because I wore my lucky socks, my team won the basketball game.

 

Which of the following defines a logical fallacy?

A logical fallacy is a presentation of good, solid logic in a person’s argument.

A logical fallacy is strategy used by writers to purposefully deceive and trick their readers.

A logical fallacy is an invalid argument; however, it may seem valid on first reading.

 

Example of Faulty Logic
Type of Fallacy
Children invariably misbehave in restaurants. I know this because every time I go out to eat, there is a child in the dining room behaving badly.
 
Immediately after the new governor was sworn in, our state’s economy crashed. Obviously this is the new governor’s fault.
 
Your teeth will decay if you don’t use Be Bright toothpaste.
 
Since the entire Spanish Club has signed up to go to Spain for the summer, you need to sign up, too.
 
Marijuana is a gateway drug. Smoking pot will only lead to the use of more dangerous drugs like heroin or cocaine.
 
My cousin does not believe that homeschooling is an effective way to educate children. What does she know? She doesn’t even have kids.
 
 

Bandwagon: Arguing that an idea should be accepted because it is popular

Example: All my friends have moved off campus, so I should, too.

 

Why is it important to watch out for logical fallacies in your writing and other people’s writing?

A logical fallacy is the strongest, most valid presentation of logic in an argument, so there is no need to watch out for it.

A logical fallacy may seem like good logic, but it is often invalid and can present an inaccurate or underdeveloped argument.

A logical fallacy is a way writers can purposefully deceive their readers, so it is important to beware of being tricked.

 

Directions: Use the dropdown menus to indicate the types of logical fallacies that are present in the following table.

Example of Faulty Logic
Type of Fallacy
After a priest administers last rites to an ill patient, the patient typically dies. We should take action to ban the administration of last rites before this tradition harms more people!
 
All of Chad’s neighbors drive hybrid electric vehicles. Therefore, Chad should buy a hybrid electric car, too.
 
My father said that high student loan debt can make life after college very challenging—but how would he know? He graduated from college without any debt whatsoever.
 
In his campaign speech, the nominee told the audience that we can either vote for him or vote for four years of economy-ruining tax increases.
 
A teenager sideswiped my car. This incident proves that all teenagers are bad drivers.
 
Alcohol is an addictive drug, and people who drink inevitably go on to become alcoholics and die of liver disease, dementia, or brain damage.
 
 

6 . Understanding Denotation and Connotation

A good way to detect an author's bias is to be aware not only of the denotation of words he or she chooses but also of the connotation. Denotation refers to the literal meaning, or the primary dictionary definition, of a word. For example, the denotative meaning of pig is "a hoofed, domesticated animal." Connotation, on the other hand, refers to the associations or emotional meanings that people often connect a word with. The connotative meanings of the word pig might include "slob" or "a greedy person."

 

Directions: Compare each pair of words. Determine which word has a negative connotative meaning and which word has a positive connotative meaning.

Word
Positive
Negative
Bold
 
 
 
Pushy
 
 
 
Word
Positive
Negative
Finicky
 
 
 
Selective
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Word
Positive
Negative
Uppity
 
 
 
Confident
 
 
 
Word
Positive
Negative
Thoughtful
 
 
 
Picky
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Word
Positive
Negative
Sluggish
 
 
 
Leisurely
 
 
 
 

Read the following sentence, and then select the word that can have a negative connotative meaning.

I heard that her husband was stingy.

Heard

Husband

Stingy

 

Read the following two sentences. The words in boldface have negative connotative meanings. For each sentence, select the word that has the same denotative meaning but is more neutral.

My girlfriend is so scatterbrained; she's always losing things.

Absentminded

Witless

Muddled

 

The football player was puny in comparison with the other players on the field.

A shrimp

A runt

Short

 

What is the denotative meaning of the word adequate?

sufficient or satisfactory

Not very good

 

Word
Positive
Negative
Unconventional
 
 
 
Odd
 
 
 
Word
Positive
Negative
Passionate
 
 
 
Obsessed
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Word
Positive
Negative
Fussy
 
 
 
Exacting
 
 
 
Word
Positive
Negative
Fragrant
 
 
 
Odorous
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Word
Positive
Negative
Fanatical
 
 
 
Enthusiastic
 
 
 
 

Our new set of highly priced patio furniture was cheaply made.

 

The woman's mother-in-law was known for her meddlesome ways.

 

The next-door neighbor was known for his prying.

 

What is the denotative meaning of the word childish?

 

Word
Positive
Negative
Wacky
 
 
 
Crazy
 
 
 
Word
Positive
Negative
Sheeplike
 
 
 
Obedient
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Word
Positive
Negative
Reserved
 
 
 
Mousy
 
 
 
Word
Positive
Negative
Sly
 
 
 
Smart
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Word
Positive
Negative
Tenacious
 
 
 
Stubborn
 
 
 
 

Gerald's partner is scrawny.

 

My ex-boyfriend was lazy, so he quit his gym membership.

 

Diane tended to blab a lot with her coworkers.

 

What is the denotative meaning of the word snake?

 

7 . Arguments in Disguise

Sometimes the most persuasive argument is that which doesn’t seem like an argument at all. Songs, movies, news reports, advertisements: these and other forms of communication often contain hidden arguments that have a tremendous effect on how we view ourselves and the world. To learn more about where arguments may hide, read the information that follows.

Where Arguments Hide

The Illusion of Objectivity

Objective statements are those that appear to be unbiased—those that bear no obvious influence from personal feelings or interpretations and seem to contain only facts. However, while facts themselves may be objective, the way facts are selected, arranged, and characterized may disguise an argument. Consider, for example, the following accounts of the same event:

Thousands March for Justice
Thousands Block Traffic
WASHINGTON, D.C. — They came from all corners—from Maine and Washington and Texas and California. They came with signs held high, with arms linked and voices united, calling on elected officials to help resolve what they see as an epidemic of police aggression toward people of color.
WASHINGTON, D.C. — Thousands of protesters caused major traffic delays by blocking traffic at Dupont Circle yesterday. The protesters, many of whom arrived in the city only hours before the protests began, were not violent but repeatedly ignored the orders of law enforcement to move their demonstration out of the road.
Notice that while both accounts are ostensibly objective, they select, arrange, and present facts in very different ways. By examining these differences, it is possible to see two distinct arguments lurking behind the objective facades: one that characterizes the protesters as noble, and one that paints them as a public nuisance.

Key Questions

•
How do the selection, arrangement, and characterization of ideas create an argument?
•
What do the selection, arrangement, and characterization of ideas say about the arguer?
 

Directions: Read this person’s comment, then select the correct answer to the question that follows.

Some health care lobbyists say that eating vast amounts of bacon is unhealthy because it makes your heart beat faster. I say this is actually a benefit. Bacon isn’t harming your heart; it’s helping you build cardiovascular strength.

 

What makes this comment an example of spin?

It shifts attention from a commonly accepted idea to one that is more favorable to the speaker’s position.

It uses vague words and phrases that prevent the audience from accurately understanding the issue.

It expresses intellectual or moral certainty and asserts that the speaker is trustworthy.

 

Directions: The following news reports present different views of a single subject. Read the reports, then answer the questions that follow.

News Report 1

Central High Robbed of Championship

DALLAS — Fans of Central High School’s football team are no doubt dissatisfied with the result of last night’s championship game against Fort Western.

As the final seconds of the fourth quarter ticked away, a Fort Western running back broke down the sideline toward the end zone in a desperate attempt to score a touchdown that would give his team the win. The referees saw him break tackle after tackle. They saw him enter the end zone and raise his hands in triumph. What they failed to see, however, was that before he crossed into the end zone, he stepped out of bounds. And despite the protests of Central High’s coaches and fans, the referees let this athletic travesty stand.

 

Which statement best expresses the argument hidden within the story entitled “Valiant Effort Propels Fort Western”?

Central High’s players should be proud of their efforts even though they lost.

Fort Western’s championship victory is not controversial.

The referees were secretly rooting for Fort Western to win.

 

How does this news report (“Valiant Effort Propels Fort Western”) make the argument you selected in the previous question?

It emphasizes the effort of the running back rather than the controversy surrounding the touchdown.

It quotes an athlete saying that playing is its own reward.

It focuses the audience’s attention on the losing team.

 

Directions: Read the following appeal to personal taste, then answer the question that follows.

Don’t you wish you could find a personal trainer who was available four days a week?

 

Which of the following arguments or assumptions are concealed within this personal taste appeal? Check all that apply.

You have money to pay for a personal trainer.

You should work out with a personal trainer several times per week.

You should value working out with a personal trainer.

You own a house made of gold.

 

Sometimes an argument will be concealed within an appeal to our tastes or desires, subtly urging us to think about ourselves or the world around us in a particular way.

Consider, for example, magazine advertisements featuring women. While such ads sell everything from cars and luggage to deodorant and cigarettes, they also, on another level, pitch ideas about women: how they should look, what they should care about, how they should relate to men, and so forth.

While one or two such advertisements might not greatly affect an entire society, when supermarkets and mailboxes and coffee tables are jammed with magazines sporting these ads, their underlying arguments become so forceful that they can shape how millions of people think about women. This, then, is the power of repeated appeals to taste or desire: they shape how we see and value the world.

Key Questions

•
How does the text appeal to the tastes or desires of the audience?
•
Is the appeal difficult to notice?
•
What argument does the appeal disguise?
 

Our company did not fire 2,000 employees. It gave 2,000 individuals the greatest gift of all: freedom. The freedom to choose their own destinies. The freedom that the Founding Fathers fought so valiantly to preserve.

 

It shifts attention from the obvious meaning to a meaning that is more favorable to the speaker’s position.

It expresses intellectual or moral certainty and asserts that the speaker is trustworthy.

It uses vague words and phrases that prevent the audience from accurately understanding the issue.

 

Wealthy Residents Want to Privatize Neighborhood

KENSINGTON — Residents of an exclusive neighborhood near Kensington Hospital want the city to prohibit hospital-bound traffic from passing through the area.

The residents, many of whom make seven-figure salaries, argue that the amount of traffic in their mansion-lined neighborhood is reducing property values. “I want to sell my house next year—but who is going to buy a house in this area now?” complained resident Ethel Webb, the chief financial officer of a billion-dollar corporation. “It’s being overrun by midsize pickup trucks.”

The solution they propose is to have the city declare the neighborhood off-limits to non-resident traffic. The plan, however, is not without its critics.

“There are real problems to solve in this city, and this isn’t one of them” said Jeff Rogers, a plumber who lives across town. “The resources needed to implement their plan would be better spent addressing the needs of people who don’t have stained-glass shower doors.”

 

Which statement best expresses the argument hidden within the story entitled “Wealthy Residents Want to Privatize Neighborhood”?

The streets of this neighborhood should be privatized.

Residents of this rich neighborhood are struggling with a devastating problem.

Residents of this rich neighborhood are whining because they don’t want to interact with the non-rich.

 

How does this news report (“Wealthy Residents Want to Privatize Neighborhood”) make the argument you selected in the previous question?

It focuses the audience’s attention on the tragic consequences of increased traffic.

It repeatedly alludes to financial issues and it cites an opposing viewpoint.

It notes that people with stained-glass shower doors can have problems too.

 

Doesn’t it ruin your day when your smartphone battery dies early in the day?

 

You own a smartphone.

It is normal to use your smartphone so much during the day that the battery dies relatively quickly.

You are a public relations professional.

You deeply value the ease of communication that a smartphone provides.

 

To spin a statement or event is to describe it in a heavily biased way—to present an interpretation of it that is favorable to a certain cause or position. When a person tries to spin a statement or event, he or she typically urges the audience to reject its obvious meaning and look at it in a new way. Consider this example:

The fact that the candidate lost the election by a wide margin doesn’t mean that he and his views are unpopular. It simply means that his opponent in the election did a much better job of getting supporters to the polls on election day.

When used in good faith, argument is a tool that can help people discover and explore ideas. The trouble with spin is that it is often dishonest, perverting argument into a weapon that obfuscates truth in service of a particular worldview.

Key Questions

•
How does the text shift attention from the obvious meaning to an interpretation more favorable to the author’s cause or position?
•
Is this shift legitimate or deceitful?
 

Some situations in life are nuanced. This is not one of them. There is no room for debate here. Anyone who disagrees is giving comfort to the enemy. Anyone who disagrees is un-American.

What makes this comment an example of propaganda?

It appeals to basic human needs and asserts that the speaker is trustworthy.

It expresses intellectual or moral certainty and oversimplifies the groups involved in the conflict.

 

Which statement best expresses the argument hidden within the story entitled “Politician Stands Tall Amid Partisan Sniping”?

The allegations against Senator Lodge are without merit.

Senator Lodge should answer reporters’ questions about this and other scandals.

Many politicians are embroiled in scandals nowadays.

 

How does this news report (“Politician Stands Tall Amid Partisan Sniping”) make the argument you selected in the previous question?

It focuses attention on how Lodge’s supporters describe the situation.

It cites examples of several other politicians embroiled in scandal.

It includes evidence proving that the allegations against Senator Lodge have no merit.

 

Don’t you wish lattes at fashionable coffee bars were less expensive?

 

You drink lattes occasionally, if not often.

You should enjoy saving money while partaking of normally expensive goods.

You wear sweater vests.

You should enjoy hanging out at fashionable coffee bars.

 

8 . Assumptions

British philosopher Stephen Toulmin believed that all arguments contain three common elements:

•
A claim: An assertion about a topic
•
Grounds: Evidence, data, or observations that support the claim
•
A warranting assumption: A reason why the grounds support the claim
Warranting assumptions are typically unstated, and consequently being able to identify them is crucial for arguers and audiences alike: An assumption forms a bridge between grounds and a claim. If an assumption is flawed, the entire argument can crumble. One way to determine the assumptions on which arguments are built is to examine arguments through the lens of Toulmin’s ideas. Consider, for example, this argument:

We should go running because the sun hasn’t gone down yet.

This argument can be broken down into a claim and the grounds that support that claim:

 
Claim: We should go running . . .
 
Grounds: . . . because the sun hasn’t gone down yet.
But why, you might ask, does it matter that the sun hasn’t gone down yet? Answering a question like this—a question about why the grounds are relevant to the argument—will typically reveal the assumption on which an argument is founded. In this case, the assumption might be stated as follows:

Running in the dark is potentially dangerous and therefore not desirable.

 

Directions: Examine this student’s concern, then answer the question that follows.

“How can I figure out what assumption an argument is based on?”

What would you say to help this student?

Try asking the arguer what he or she is assuming.

Try analyzing the evidence, examples, and appeals the arguer is using.

Try considering the claim and grounds and then asking yourself why the grounds are relevant.

 

Directions: Examine each set of claims and grounds and then indicate which statement expresses the assumption that connects them.

 
Claim: Social media sites should do more to discourage trolling (the posting of upsetting comments in order to offend people) . . .
 
Grounds: . . . because it ultimately reduces public debate to an obscene shouting match.
Which statement expresses the underlying assumption that connects the claim and the grounds?

Freedom of speech is no longer important.

Social media sites are important to modern life.

High-minded, civil debate is important to our society.

 

 
Claim: You should organize your notebooks and binders . . .
 
Grounds: . . . so that you’ll be able to easily find your notes and homework.
Which statement expresses the underlying assumption that connects the claim and the grounds?

Schoolwork requires that students use a lot of paper.

Notebooks and binders are effective places to store notes and homework.

It is desirable to be able to find one’s notes and homework.

 

 “In class today my professor talked a lot about questioning your own basic assumptions when forming an argument. I’m still not sure why it’s important to do this, though. Do you know?”

What would you say to help this student?

Questioning your own basic assumptions will help ensure that you use effective rhetorical appeals.

Questioning your own basic assumptions will help ensure that your argument is not flawed on a fundamental level.

Questioning your own basic assumptions will help ensure that your argument incorporates appropriate facts and statistics.

 

 
Claim: Schools shouldn’t place so much emphasis on standardized test preparation . . .
 
Grounds: . . . because it limits the ability of teachers to help students develop the knowledge and skills they need to survive outside of school.
In order for students to survive life outside of school, standardized test scores must be improved.

Teachers are reluctant to help students learn to succeed on standardized tests.

Being able to survive life outside of school is more important than being able to do well on standardized tests.

 

 
Claim: We should get groceries this morning . . .
 
Grounds: . . . because there’s supposed to be a blizzard this afternoon.
Doing errands in a blizzard is potentially dangerous and therefore not desirable.

Severe weather happens more frequently than it used to.

It is always easier to purchase groceries in the morning.

 

 “In class today my professor kept saying that it’s important to identify and question the assumptions of other people’s arguments. I’m not clear on why this is so important, though. Do you know?”

Identifying and questioning others’ assumptions can reveal the qualifiers their argument uses.

Identifying and questioning others’ assumptions can reveal flaws in their arguments.

Identifying and questioning others’ assumptions can reveal the rhetorical appeals they are using.

 

 
Claim: Students should be required to learn how to write computer code . . .
 
Grounds: . . . because many jobs now require an in-depth understanding of technology.
It is desirable to ensure that students know how to write code.

It is desirable for students to develop easily marketable job skills.

It is desirable that everyone get a job developing software.

 

 
Claim: We should eat at my favorite pizza restaurant, Greg Kneads Your Dough . . .
 
Grounds: . . . because it has ample parking.
It is desirable that we easily find a place to park.

The pizza at Greg Kneads Your Dough is delicious.

Restaurants that serve delicious food always have their own parking lots.